ABSTRACT
The coronavirus pandemic emerged in early 2020 and turned out to be deadly, killing a vast number of people all around the world. Fortunately, vaccines have been discovered, and they seem effectual in controlling the severe prognosis induced by the virus. The reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) test is the current golden standard for diagnosing different infectious diseases, including COVID-19; however, it is not always accurate. Therefore, it is extremely crucial to find an alternative diagnosis method which can support the results of the standard RT-PCR test. Hence, a decision support system has been proposed in this study that uses machine learning and deep learning techniques to predict the COVID-19 diagnosis of a patient using clinical, demographic and blood markers. The patient data used in this research were collected from two Manipal hospitals in India and a custom-made, stacked, multi-level ensemble classifier has been used to predict the COVID-19 diagnosis. Deep learning techniques such as deep neural networks (DNN) and one-dimensional convolutional networks (1D-CNN) have also been utilized. Further, explainable artificial techniques (XAI) such as Shapley additive values (SHAP), ELI5, local interpretable model explainer (LIME), and QLattice have been used to make the models more precise and understandable. Among all of the algorithms, the multi-level stacked model obtained an excellent accuracy of 96%. The precision, recall, f1-score and AUC obtained were 94%, 95%, 94% and 98% respectively. The models can be used as a decision support system for the initial screening of coronavirus patients and can also help ease the existing burden on medical infrastructure.
ABSTRACT
In early March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) proclaimed the novel COVID-19 as a global pandemic. The coronavirus went on to be a life-threatening infection and is still wreaking havoc all around the globe. Though vaccines have been rolled out, a section of the population (the elderly and people with comorbidities) still succumb to this deadly illness. Hence, it is imperative to diagnose this infection early to prevent a potential severe prognosis. This contagious disease is usually diagnosed using a conventional technique called the Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR). However, this procedure leads to a number of wrong and false-negative results. Moreover, it might also not diagnose the newer variants of this mutating virus. Artificial Intelligence has been one of the most widely discussed topics in recent years. It is widely used to tackle various issues across multiple domains in the modern world. In this extensive review, the applications of Artificial Intelligence in the detection of coronavirus using modalities such as CT-Scans, X-rays, Cough sounds, MRIs, ultrasound and clinical markers are explored in depth. This review also provides data enthusiasts and the broader health community with a complete assessment of the current state-of-the-art approaches in diagnosing COVID-19. The key issues and future directions are also provided for upcoming researchers.